Book Report Writing Template Essay

This is a guide only. It is not meant to write the report for you. It gives you a format or template for writing your own report. The original draft was developed by a teacher friend of mine to use with her own students. I have made a few additional enhancements which I believe make the model more clear and complete. A note of caution here. Your instructor may have another book report format that he/she prefers. So, make sure they approve of this format before using it. The following book report format template is appropriate for students at the pre-college level who are required to write a report about a book they have read. For the type of book summaries applicable to college and university level (undergraduate and post-graduate), as well as for business and professional situations, you can check out the following book summary sample. 1. Introductory Paragraph The first sentence should state for which instructor and class the book-report is being written. The second sentence should state the title of the book and the author’s name. The third sentence should tell how many pages the book has and the name of the publisher. The fourth sentence can state basic bibliographic information about the book. Bibliographic information means not only the author and title but also what company published the book, what year it was published in and any other relevant information such as the edition and if the book has been translated, simplified or abridged. (see copyright page and the back of the title page. ) The next sentence should state the reason(s) you decided to read this book. Why did you choose this particular book? Typical reasons might be: You like the author. You like this type of book (i. e. mystery, western, adventure or romance, etc. ). Read more:  How many sentences in one paragraph. Someone recommended the book to you. It was on a required reading list. You liked the cover. These reasons do not have to be complex. Most people choose the books they read because they like the author or somebody recommended it to them. If you chose the book because you like the author, then state why you like that author. An optional sentence can be used if the cover (back cover) of the book gives you any additional information then add a sentence with that information. Was the book a best seller? Are there X million copies in print? Did it win any major awards? 2. Main Character(s) Paragraph The first sentence of this paragraph should state who the main character or characters of the book are, and why they are important. Refer to this person or these persons as the Main Character or Main Characters. You will need at least a complex sentence for this, and probably more than one sentence. 3. Other Characters Paragraph You should compose at least one sentence for each of the other prominent or important characters in the book. State the name of each of the other important characters, and the key role that each one plays in the book Most books have five or six prominent characters besides the main character, so simply listing each one and stating their role in the book will give you a good sized paragraph. 4. Plot Summary Paragraph This is perhaps the hardest paragraph to write in five sentences or so. If you have to write a bit more don’t worry. Here are the main points to cover: State the type of book (Mystery, Western, etc. ). What place or country was the book set in? What time period was the book set in? (19th century, the present, ancient Rome, the 23rd century). Other physical locations which are important, like: ships, airplanes, houses, or buildings. Other notable attributes of the book. (Was it violent, scary, fast paced, etc. ). What is the main character trying to do? What is the outcome of the book? etc. Make sure you cover all of the major parts of the plot. You might have to go back through the book, chapter by chapter, and make a few notes. 5. Personal Impressions and Conclusion Paragraph Simply talk about what you liked or did not like about the book. Use this paragraph as your conclusion. It should summarize your overall impressions of the book and bring the report to a close. Start with a sentence that states that you are now writing a conclusion. (For example: â€Å"My final thoughts on ‘A Fine Balance’ are that it is a fascinating book but I am not entirely sure if I completely understood the thematic message of the book. † Restate your reasons why you liked and/or disliked the book using different words. Write two sentences that talk about the books good points and weak points. Write a sentence or two about what you learned from the book. Close with a sentence that states whether you would recommend the book to others. Don’t be afraid to give your own honest impressions of the book. After all, if you’ve read the book thoroughly, you are entitled to your own interpretation of it. Typically, your book report should not exceed two double-spaced pages, and it should be somewhere between 600 and 800 words in length. Research Assistance This site, which claims to be the best single research source online, maintains an inventory of more than 25,000 research reports on thousands of subjects; many of which are book summaries. Most are available for immediate download. If your subject isn’t already in their archives, they will do custom research and writing for you. You can download existing papers and/or order custom research papers 24 Hours a Day!

Fractional Distillation Essay

Abstract An equimolar mixture of cyclohexane and toluene was separated by simple and fractional distillation, using an empty column and a copper sponge column respectively. Using helium as the mobile phase, the distillate was analyzed through gas chromatography. The calculated HETP for the simple distillation was 8.274 cm/plate and the 3.332 cm/plate for the fractional distillation. Experimental Procedure A copper packed fractional-distillation column was obtained and an apparatus was assembled for fractional distillation. Four clean, dry fraction collectors were obtained and labeled HETP, fraction 1, fraction 2, and fraction 3 respectively. A volume of 40.0 mL of an equimolar mixture of cyclohexane and toluene was added to a 100.0-mL round bottom flask attached to the end of the distillation column. Heating chips were added to the round bottom flask in order to speed up the heating process. The 100.0-mL round bottom flask, along with the distillation column was attached to a ring stand over a heat source. The mixture was delicately heated to a boil. The first five drops were collected in the vial labeled HETP. The liquid for vial 1 began collecting when the temperature was 60 C and continued until it was 85 C. Vial 2 began collecting when the temperature was 86ï‚ °C and continued until it was 99 C. Vial 3 was collected at room temperature once the remaining liquid cooled. A volume of 1 micro-liter of each fraction, including the HEPT was added to the gas chromatography apparatus separately in order for each fraction to be analyzed. For simple distillation, the same procedure was followed using an empty, clean, and dry column. Data: Table 1: Simple Distillation Values VariablesHETPFraction 1Fraction 2Pot Residue Temp range,  °C-60-8586-100- Empty Vials & cap, g5.45316.84216.48216.842 Vial & contents, g5.57828.32330.21123.311 Mass of fraction, g0.12511.48113.7296.469 Area GC peak for Cy93.9461.2430.430 Relative mass Cy, g104.2767.97633.7770 % mass Cy93.3692.6349.550 Actual mass Cy, g0.116710.6356.8030 Actual moles Cy0.001390.126.08080 Area GC peak Tol6.684.8730.9874.33 Relative mass Tol, g7.0145.113532.52978.047 % mass Toluene6.647.3750.45100 Actual mass Tol, g0.008384.6156.9266.469 Actual moles Tol0.000090.91770.07510.0702 Table 2: Fractional Distillation Values (Copper Sponge Column) VariablesHETPFraction 1Fraction 2Pot Residue Temp range,  °C67-7071-8586-100- Empty Vials & cap, g5.30416.52815.73616.031 Vial & contents, g5.41227.14725.26026.200 Mass of fraction, g0.10810.6199.52410.169 Area GC peak for Cy49.4378.2240.000 Relative mass Cy, g54.86786.82444.40 % mass Cy99.588.7663.560 Actual mass Cy, g0.10759.4256.0530 Actual moles Cy0.00130.1120.06570 Area GC peak Tol0.19.9022.9457.86 Relative mass Tol, g0.10510.39524.08760.753 % mass Toluene0.511.2436.44100 Actual mass Tol, g0.00051.1943.47110.169 Actual moles Tol0.0000050.01290.03760.1103 Discussion The Northern Pines Chemical Company specializes in manufacturing chemicals from wood products such as turpentine. To obtain pure ÃŽ ±-pinene, it must be separated, using fractional distillation, from the other major component   turpentine, ÃŽ ²-pinene. This company would like to switch to a cheaper and longer-lasting packing material. The objective of this experiment was to separate an equimolar mixture of cyclohexane and toluene by simple and fractional distillation, using an empty column and a copper sponge column respectively. The distillate was analyzed through gas chromatography, using helium as the mobile phase. Helium is a good mobile phase because it acts as an unreactive carrier-gas that pushes the samples through the chromatogram. This information was used to determine which packing material is most effective by comparing HETP values which based on the number of theoretical plates each material provides. Using the copper sponge as packing material in the fractional distil lation column provided a very effective separation of cyclohexane and toluene. The calculated HETP for simple distillation was 8.274 cm/plate and 3.332 cm/plate for fractional distillation. The fractional distillation was more effective because it had a lower HETP value which means that it has a higher number of theoretical plates for the same column length as the simple distillation. When comparing the purity of the major cyclohexane-rich fraction with the starting mixture (the equimolar mixture of cyclohexane and toluene) of each distillation the packing material improved efficiency by more than six percent. One way to recover cyclohexane with even greater purity would be to heat the starting mixture slowly and steadily instead of rapidly, allowing better separation of the components. Another way to improve purity is to make sure the column is properly packed (not too tight) and insulated. Different packing materials will have diverse efficiency for distillation and therefore yield different HETP values. The most efficient packing material used was â€Å"rascing rings,† which provided an HETP of 2.67 cm/plate. The copper sponge material had an HETP value of 3.3 cm/plate, followed by glass beads and coiled copper with 7.5cm/plate and galvanized steel with 12.5 cm/plate. Packing the Northern Pines Chemical Company’s 3ft fractionating column with rascing rings would provide 34.2 plates, which meets the minimum requirement for separating ÃŽ ±- and ÃŽ ²-pinene. Exercises 1) HETP=height/plates Porcelain saddles: 5 cm= (15 cm )/(x )=3 plates Glass Tube: 15 cm= (15 cm )/x=1 plate Vigreux Column: 8 cm= (24 cm)/x=3 plates Total plates= 3+3+1-1(boiling flask) = 6 plates 2) The HETP value and efficiency of separation can be affected by experimental errors. A) If the HETP sample was collected midway through the distillation, the mole fraction of cyclohexane:toluene would be much lower, which would in turn yield a higher HETP value. B) If all of the liquid distilled within 5 minutes of heating, a higher HETP value would be found again because all of the toluene would be distilled as well. This also means poor separation. C) If two packed columns were stacked over the boiling flask instead of one, the HETP value remain the same if the columns were identical because the height and number of plates would be the same.

Environmental Issues Can Be Handled Without Compromising on Profits Research Paper

Environmental Issues Can Be Handled Without Compromising on Profits - Research Paper Example The strategic avoidance or minimal compliance with the regulations pertaining to environmental management has led the corporations to environmental pollution or degradation of the environment. The managers are usually faced with difficult situations when they have to trade-off between economic profitability and concern for the environment. However, firms can address the environmental concerns while remaining sustainable although different firms may follow a different path to achieve the objectives. Managers’ commitment to sustainable development can be a source of competitive advantage but they view strategic environmental issues as threats (Là ³pez-Gamero, Claver-Cortà ©s & Molina-Azorà ­n, 2007). It has also been found that the number of resources available to the organization as well as the size of the firm determines the firm’s orientation towards appropriate environmental initiatives. This is evident from the case of the Body Shop and its take over by L’Oreal. Body Shop is known for its ethical stand on animal testing, human rights, community trade and the environment (Glasgow, 2006). The Body Shop had been positioned as an ethical and green-conscious business, believing in fair-trade practices (Alarcon, 2008). Body Shop had been seeking financial support and when the takeover was decided, it was also agreed that Body Shop would continue to operate as an independent unit. L’Oreal is 25% owned by Nestle and is a brand in itself. While Body Sh op was dead against testing its cosmetics on animals, L’Oreal has always been doing this. L’Oreal’ has refused to sign the Compact for Safe Cosmetics – a Code of practice – that requires the removal of potential carcinogens and other toxins from beauty products (Russell, 2007).

Potential security threats on a home personal computer Essay

Potential security threats on a home personal computer - Essay Example In this context, one can easily shop and buy goods online without necessarily having to travel to the business premises. This mode of conducting business has boosted computer crimes, by creating an alternative avenue for defrauding unsuspecting customers, mostly through phishing (Quarantiello, 2006). Phishing involves the creation and designing of rogue websites by criminals, imitating websites belonging to genuine businesses, with the intention of capturing personal information such as credit card numbers, passwords, among others; which is commonly known as identity theft. After attaining the details, criminals can access bank accounts and make purchases without the knowledge of the bank holder (Quarantiello, 2006). The internet comprises of numerous sites, most of which are genuine but with some designed to spread malicious programs and computer viruses (Gollmann, 2005). These sites are difficult to suspect and they create curiosity in the user by displaying attractive messages in form of pop up menus, prompting the user to click, for example to unhide a free gift.

Discuss using real business examples the different styles of Appraisal Essay

Discuss using real business examples the different styles of Appraisal processes businesses use today - Essay Example 1): a. Critical incident method – the operational management records all specific incidents intentionally or by omission of duties to improve their performance (Humanresources.hrvinet.com, 2013, p. 1); b. Weighted checklist  method – this is an approach where the performance of the employee is measured by through their job description to determine if they have performed effectively and ineffectively their roles and if their behaviours remained attuned to corporate policies (Humanresources.hrvinet.com, 2013, p. 1). c.  Paired comparison analysis – this is an evaluation approach that made use of available relevant options based on what is provided in the list. The result is calculated and the score is determined by the values of score assigned in the provided option (Humanresources.hrvinet.com, 2013, p. 1). d.  Graphic rating scales- is tagged as the oldest and most widely used employee’s performance. The management here has a list of criteria which se rved as checklist of the performance level of their staff (Humanresources.hrvinet.com, 2013, p. 1). ... This is also supported with rating scale and critical incident reports in the performance of staff duties (Humanresources.hrvinet.com, 2013, p. 1). g.  Performance ranking method --- this evaluation uses highest to lowest ranking performance. The management use the other companies’ condition as bases for comparative causes instead of comparing the staffs. This is undertaken, of course, with sets of standard as bases for comparison (Humanresources.hrvinet.com, 2013, p. 1). h. Management By Objectives  (MBO) method – is another approach in assessing performance and use reward system in accordance to results to encourage workers to improve their performance (Humanresources.hrvinet.com, 2013, p. 1). i. 360 degree performance appraisal – is a method of performance that is done in confidence and in anonymity (Humanresources.hrvinet.com, 2013, p. 1). 10.Forced ranking  (forced distribution) – this approach adopt the system of ranking employees using forced allocation such as proportionally sharing 10 or 20 % as at the highest performance level while 70 or 80% are either in the mid or low level of performance (Humanresources.hrvinet.com, 2013, p. 1). 11.  Behavioural Observation Scales—this evaluative approach is anchored on scales of observation where relevant tasks are undertaken in a regular basis (Humanresources.hrvinet.com, 2013, p. 1). The Nature of Work Groups & Teams George and Jones (2005) pointed that the evaluating the human resources must be contextualized too on full knowledge of human resource’ diversity and some of their possible deviance so that the management can still refine their abilities to organizational l goals. Through this approach, the management can also

Prevention of Falls in Elderly Rehabilitation Patients Essay

Prevention of Falls in Elderly Rehabilitation Patients - Essay Example Research on the elderly has attained ethnographic cross-cultural comparative proportions of investigation, being one of the most necessary requirements of society. Professional acute care, community care with their circumstantial inadequacies and the situational hopelessness of the elderly in those last sad years motivate Sociologists to invest more time on finding alternatives and innovations. One point all the care facilities and Governments usually forget is that the care is necessity-dependent and not just age-dependent. These articles belong to the researched data connected to this field. As the falling of elderly has become a main problem especially so in the western society, because it delays rehabilitation and healing, it is necessary to have as much information as possible on the given area. Critical assessment and comparison of two or more research pieces can give more insight to care workers like me who have to focus on the problem. This is a very pertinent area for a care giving professional and it is better to analyze the research available than simply scanning through it. I would like to appraise both the works, analyse them and compare them. I would also like to critically go through them and point out the areas of deficiency and shortcomings. I have tried to find similarities, glaring dissimilarities and various points that the researches have touched in the process. I feel it is important because of the seriousness of the problem that can make the last days of the elderly very painful, lonely and ailing. It is important to welcome as much research as possible in this region. LIMITATIONS: Both the research work show very limited perspectives of the problem. They do not envelop the entire relevant issue. Instead, they focus on certain practical advice and connected research without concentrating much on day-to-day activities of the care homes that are trying hard for a successful rehabilitation. As these researches are not highly extensive, their field strength is rather limited. Even though they represent two highly important sides of the problem, one approaching from physical angle and another from mental, it is difficult to conclude that both the papers have achieved anything absolutely conclusive. LITERATURE REVIEW: Aging touches different parameters in the Western and Eastern World because in Eastern countries, families take care of the elders under normal circumstances. Problems facing the elderly in European Countries, Australia, USA or Eastern Countries are identical. Caring for the frail elderly does not limit itself to one region or country."Older people in European society are therefore not to be regarded as a homogeneous mass but as a diverse group of people who may have only one characteristic in common - their age" says Hugman (1994, p.7). Restorative care is distinctively different from usual care because they have to be matched with the particular individualistic

Nintendo Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Nintendo - Case Study Example With that approach, they were able to streamline promotion and advertising into a single and consistent message. On the other hand, Nintendo was emphasizing on selective specialization, whereby they targeted both children and hardcore gamers. This kind of approach created confusion among Nintendo’s customers, because the two segments of the market had different needs that called for different messages in the advertisements for each segment. Customer satisfaction was, therefore, not achieved, and Nintendo needed to address that issue in order to reclaim its market share. Analysis of Case Data The main cause of the issue was Nintendo’s failure to invest in new technology. Key customers in the video game industry are in two categories: nontraditional children or teenagers, and the 18-35 year old serious gamers. The industry’s profits and revenues are realized from the second group that spends huge amounts of money and time sharpening their skills. Furthermore, they are tech-junkies, an aspect that Sony and Microsoft noticed. They targeted the segment and created games with high-speed, powerful processors. From the number of Playstation units sold, it can be determined that Sony managed to reach the target group. 120 million Playstations were sold by Sony, compared to only 20 million GameCubes by Nintendo. Data on market share shows that Nintendo was steadily dropping. Alternative Solutions The circumstances facing Nintendo dictated two major alternatives: either fight the competition to get back its market share or shift focus to other markets and avoid direct competition. If they chose to fight, it would have meant putting emphasis on hardcore gamers like Sony and Microsoft, and then attempt to beat them in performance terms. With the high cost of essential components in the manufacture of high performance video games, Nintendo would be forced to sell at a loss. Furthermore, their children-friendly themes was disadvantaged against the new market of M-rated and violent games. The other option was to focus on a different market segment that was not being served by Sony’s PlayStation or Microsoft’s Xbox. Determining and Establish Key Decision Criteria Key decision criteria should be based on a firm’s advantage in a segment, competitive environment, profitability, growth rate and size (Rusetski 211). These should be supported by an understanding of demographic trends, the significance of market segmentation and the uncertainties that are associated with a change of market targets. Viewing the market differently, it is possible to identify several other specialized segments. Nintendo was able to identify the casual and hardcore gamers. From the two available alternatives, Nintendo can either; invest more and fight for the hardcore segment that seems to be setting the trend in video games, with the risk of ending up in more losses; or take yet another risk and focus on the casual segment and the sub-segments found within the category, which also risks a re-launch failure. However, the casual segment provides a wider market that includes families, seniors, women and children. Evaluation of the Alternatives While the pressure from the competition seems minimal in the casual segment, there is uncertainty in profitability, growth rate and size, even with Nintendo’s image being family-friendly. This is bec ause it cannot be known for sure whether the video game adoption process has reached a point of early and late majority buyers being ready to be members of the gaming society, yet they make upto 65 percent of the market. In the same way, the casual segment’s growth rate is not known. The greatest risk lies in the segment’

Health policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 4

Health policy - Essay Example The funds will be used to develop an advanced genetic sequencing technology (Burton, 1). 70 million dollars, will be used by the national cancer institute, to develop a genome marker that will help in much more precise cancer treatment. Further 5million dollars will be allocated to the health record information management that will ensure that the data collected is stored safely and accessible to researchers. The physicians will also have access to the information to aid them in the management of patients. This initiative, will go long way in reducing the cost patient’s incur while undergoing treatment when empirical treatment is used. This too will prevent the patients from having to take a number of medication therapies that are not helpful to their conditions. I agree with the policy and the article since it will be of much help to the patients and the physicians as a whole. It will provide a guideline on the modality of treatment hence saving on time used to figure out the best method of treatment for a particular ailment Burton, Thomas M. "Obama to seek $215 million for precion-medicne." Wall Street Jounal (2015): 1. Document, Retrieved from

Annotated Bibliography Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Annotated Bibliography - Essay Example The aim was to ascertain the level of understanding the men had of prostate cancer, of the treatment options available to them as well as knowledge of any potential side effects The researchers obtained their data and the resultant statistics used convenience sampling and questionnaires administered by general practitioners. Using these methods the researchers discovered that 80% of the group were unaware of the role of the prostate. Almost half did not realize that it was the commonest internal male cancer and roughly one third knew nothing about possible treatments. Just over half had no knowledge of treatment side effects. When it came to making a decision about possible treatment 70% answered that they would consult a doctor and then make their own decision. With these statistics in mind the researchers concluded that there was a definite deficit of appropriate knowledge among these men and that they preferred there to be some medical involvement in decision making. They also dis covered a number of misconceptions held by members of the research group.

Technical writting Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Technical writting - Assignment Example He could position the data and information according to things to carry out in the diverse geographic or districts locations of the town. Spatial pattern makes logic intended for the author to standardize the information through physical location for the reason that the information is simple to understand as well as utilize in this format, mainly for tourists who are not well-known with the region (Friedlander, 2004). A Chronological principle of organization is order of importance or climactic order. In Chronological pattern, items are set as of least important to most important. Usual conversions would comprise most difficult, more important, by far the most expensive, still harder, worse up till now, even more damaging, and so on. This is an elastic standard of organization, as well as can guide the organization of the entire or part of case, cause & effect, comparison & contrast, plus description (Friedlander, 2004). For instance, a writers stated principle is to explain the past development or development of the city of Seattle. Supposing that Seattle is having 100 years old history, the writer could systematize the data and information through combining it into 4 chunks of 25-year each. In this state of affairs, the sub-points within all major part of time represent the mainly important events that happened throughout that particular time frame (University of Washington, 2009). Usability testing is proven to trim down expenditure, augment user satisfaction, also save on improvement as well as redesign work (Blastam, 2009). Usability testing assesses behavior, not preference.   Clients are notoriously bad at presenting what kind of software they want; on the other hand through observing and determining behavior, we are able to know about most excellent supports, their motivations, and objectives (Ostrander, 2000). Usability testing offers a great competitive

How Ian Mcmillan Conveys His Attitudes Towards the Death of His Mother Essay Example for Free

How Ian Mcmillan Conveys His Attitudes Towards the Death of His Mother Essay McMillan uses harsh words throughout the poem to show his grief and remorse at his mothers death. Words like â€Å"shatters† link with how he is feeling, like everything is broken and cannot be repaired. This word makes us imagine something broken into lots of tiny pieces which cant be put back together again, and it helps us to understand how broken and jumbled up he is feeling. The word â€Å"slap† when talking about â€Å"the tears (that) slap my torn face† insinuates the idea that he is in physical pain, that the emotional pain he feels is is so strong that he physically hurts. In the first stanza, we find out about his mothers death. Enjambment is used to speed up the pace of the poem, and show how quickly someones whole live can change, like in the phraseâ€Å"In the moment it takes a life to pass/ from waking to sleeping† The phrase â€Å"from waking to sleeping† highlights the opposites in what he and his mother are doing, as she passes from life to death. The word sleeping creates quiet a gentle image, and suggests that her death was not unexpected, and perhaps was drawn out and painful. Sleep is a very relaxed and calm time, the only time when the human mind can escape from problems in the day, so perhaps the idea of his mother falling asleep is comforting, like she has now stopped suffering and can rest happy. The second stanza uses a lot of words relating to the senses, to help us understand how McMillan is feeling. The sentence â€Å"outside a milk float chinks and shines† shows that the world is carrying on as normal, despite the fact that McMillans world has personally just stopped. The rhyming pattern throughout this poem is abab, but in this stanza the words â€Å"mine† and â€Å"shines† are meant to rhyme, but the fact that they don;t fully rhyme represents the disorientation he is feeling upon finding out about his mothers death, and perhaps also shows how nothing is quite right any more. Also, the word drones when describing a plane has been used to represent the deep grief he is feeling, and makes us feel like he has completely given up. In the third stanza McMillan seems to be describing a state of shock that he has fallen in to, which is quite a normal reaction when a loved one dies. McMillan describes his tears to slap his torn face; as well as slap being a raw and aggressive word, the way he describes his face as torn perhaps suggests that it was his mother who held him together, and now, without her, he is broken. This helps us to realise how important his mother was to him, which makes us sympathise for him a lot and evokes a feeling of empathy when we put ourselves in his position. McMillan says he feels trapped, like he is trapped by his own emotion and although its up to him to find a way out of this dark place, he cant see an escape. This shows how alone and scared he is feeling knowing his motherr is no longer around and also makes us think how panicked he must be feeling, as we would be if we were trapped somewhere. The word float makes us think that McMillan is no longer in control of his emotions, that what he is feeling is unstoppable, but also it instigates the sense that nothing seems quite normal around him, and that he is detached from reality. The final stanza is a rhyming couplet that summarises the grief and emptiness and the lack of will to go on without his mother. â€Å"Feeling that the story ends just here† conveys the idea that there isnt a story to continue without his mother, showing how depressed McMillan is feeling, like he has reached a dead end in his life.

Investigating The Causal Natures of Chance and Spontaneity Essay Example for Free

Investigating The Causal Natures of Chance and Spontaneity Essay After introducing the principle causes (efficient, formal, material, final), Aristotle talks about chance and spontaneity in Book II, (Physics) for the purpose of investigating their place among the said causes. Aristotle bases his enquiry on the observation that in history, these terms are conflictive in their interpretation. Some people say that everything that we consider luck or spontaneity really has some underlying definite cause. Yet there are other people, such as Empedocles, who invoke chance when describing the physics of air; or some, who â€Å"ascribe this heavenly sphere and all the worlds to spontaneity† (196a 25). In setting out to elucidate the nature of these terms and their place among the causes, Aristotle contends that chance and spontaneity are not explanatory causes of their own, but concurrent causes. By drawing from Aristotle’s view on nature and deliberate intention, this essay sets out to develop a clear understanding of the term concurrent in relation to chance and spontaneity. Aristotle begins his account with the basic observation that some things always occur in the same way and some things occur for the most part in the same way. Yet some occurrences are exceptional-this third category, according to Aristotle, is the class of chance and spontaneity: â€Å"†¦as there is a third class of events besides these two-events which all say are ‘by chance’-it is plain that there is such a thing as chance and spontaneity† (196b 12-14). He continues to state that events that occur, but that do not occur as a direct result of intent (thought) or nature, but rather incidentally, â€Å"are said to be ‘by chance’† (196b 24). Here, we can identify what constitutes an event of chance or spontaneity. It seems that when the specific cause does not yield the intended result always or for the most part, then the result is produced by chance or spontaneity. Conversely, when the cause does yield the intended result always or for the most part, then chance or spontaneity has not affected the process. At this point, it is necessary to distinguish chance from spontaneity. Clearly then, when events directed towards an end â€Å"do not come to pass for the sake of what actually results, and (3) have an external cause† (197b 18-19) we ascribe this to spontaneity and chance. Chance follows this same structure, but differs only in that the external cause is the deliberate intent of rational beings. In other words, chance exists only for â€Å"agents that are capable of good fortune and of moral actions† (197b 1-2); for rational beings that are capable of â€Å"intelligent deliberation† (197a 2). Spontaneity, on the other hand, â€Å"is found both in the lower animals and in many inanimate objects† (197b 14-15). Before analyzing the way that chance and spontaneity are concurrent causes, it is necessary to understand Aristotle’s example of the house and house builder. The efficient (and determinable) cause is that which can build the house, while the concurrent cause (the builder’s skin tone or musical ability) is infinite in range, (and thus is indeterminable). By ‘concurrent cause’, it follows that chance and spontaneity are indeed some form of cause, for †Ã¢â‚¬ ¦just as a thing is something either in virtue of itself or incidentally, so it may be a cause† (196b 25-26). Aristotle further states that they (chance and spontaneity) come â€Å"to pass among events which are for the sake of something†. 196b 30-31) Thus, chance and spontaneity are causes by virtue of concurrence with a principle cause, and occur concurrently with events directed towards an end. Yet, what does it mean to say that chance or spontaneity occur concurrently with a cause directed towards an end? First, we will investigate chance as a concurrent cause. In the example in chapter 5, a man goes to the market with a specific purpose (to buy fruits for example), and by chance, he meets his debtor and collects subscriptions for a feast. According to Aristotle, if â€Å"he had gone of deliberate purpose and for the sake of this [to collect the money]-if he always or normally went there when he was collecting payments-he would not be said to have gone ‘by chance. ’† (197a 4-6) We have established that, for this event to be one that occurred by chance, it is necessary both that the man travel to the market with a purpose other than to collect the money, and that the man not frequent the market with this purpose. It follows that collecting the money is not â€Å"a cause present in himself† (197a 1) because it is not his intent at the time. Thus, we only invoke chance when the event is not intended to occur by the rational agents involved. It seems that the event can be explained by the coinciding of each of the individuals’ efficient causes. In the case of chance, and not spontaneity, we are dealing with â€Å"those actions for the sake of something which involve purpose† (197a 6); implying intelligent reflection. This is important to note, as the individual causes of each person stems from their own â€Å"intelligent deliberation[s]†-the haracterizing difference between spontaneity and chance. In Ethics (III), Aristotle argues that humans have control over their own actions, that they are able to choose the means to their end in view. Applied to this scenario, the act of going to buy fruits (the efficient cause) by the collector, and the separate efficient cause of the debtor, intersected to produce an unintended encounter. Yet exactly how chance occurs concurrently is still ambiguous-for it seems that chance is just an observation of the unlikelihood of the two events coinciding. Clearly the conclusion here is that chance does not provide the true cause of the meeting, â€Å"it is not the cause-without qualification-of anything† (197a 14). Aristotle’s example in chapter 5, in which â€Å"the pale or the musical† (196b 27) are incidental causes of the house builder, seems to be analogous to the example of the market place. By this, it seems that chance occurs concurrently with any or one of the 4 causes in the same way that musical talent is a concurrent cause of the house. Plainly, the house builder’s skin tone or musical ability does not provide an explanatory cause for the construction of the house. There are an infinite number of accidental traits that the builder could have which would be irrelevant to the construction of the house. Thus, the only way to see this chance as concurrent is to conclude that it is simultaneously present in the builder (who is an efficient cause). By equivalence, â€Å"the causes of the man’s coming and getting the money are innumerable† (197a 16), (for he could have gone to the market for many reasons). Yet, it is clear that only one intended action could cause the unintentional result of the meeting. Given these assertions, it seems correct to say that events occurring by chance are unintentional (the agent had no intention of this result at that time). The reason for this is because the primary causes are intentional. In the building of a chair, for example, Aristotle would agree that all 4 causes are intentional: for the creator intends a final purpose for the chair, builds it purposefully with a certain material, builds it according to a form which he has chosen, and knows that he is the cause of its’ existence as a chair. Thus, the causes of events are always intentional, while chance events are unintentional (on the part of the rational agents); and like the accidental traits of the builder, occur simultaneously with the primary causes. Given that there are an infinite number of acts that a rational being may choose, it is clear that only some of these actions can result in an event of chance. As Aristotle puts it â€Å"some incidental causes are more relevant than others† (197a 24). It follows that we invoke ‘chance’ only when the purposeful actions of a rational agent coincide with other actions and produce an unintended event. Thus, it now seems reasonable to say that only a specific chance ‘cause’ (going to buy fruits) could produce the event deemed chanceful (the meeting). Since only some intentional acts will result in an event of chance, (an event unintended by the person’s actions), it makes sense to say that a chance cause occurs simultaneously in the individual with the efficient cause, for it is this cause in him (the efficient cause) that leads him to the improbable result. It is at this point that we turn to spontaneity, which according to Aristotle, is in the realm of lower animals and the inanimate-things incapable of deliberate intention. Aristotle views natural things as those which, â€Å"by a continuous movement originated from an internal principle, arrive at some completion†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (199b 18). He uses the example of the doctor doctoring himself to illustrate how natural things have within them a final cause, by which form guides material to achieve this end (Physics II:8). So while man can deliberately choose a means to an end, and in doing so may accidentally intersect with another individual and deem their encounter chanceful, natural things do not deliberately chose. The natural motion is â€Å"seeking an end† (199a 5)- but this final cause within the natural thing is not a deliberate choice of intelligent deliberation. Unless impeded by a chance natural event that is irrelevant to the end in view, the natural process will realize it’s end; for nature does nothing in vain, nothing superfluous (On the Heavens). The rain clouds forming and dropping over the crops for example, are not the result of chance of spontaneity (198b 19). All natural things have a function in a greater whole and within their being have a final cause to which they form. It is for this reason that Aristotle says that when a natural process does not attain it’s end according to it’s final cause, the means to this accidental result were â€Å"in vain† (197b 24). How does spontaneity occur concurrently then? Since natural things have a â€Å"cause that operates for a purpose† (196b 32), it must be when this end is not attained, as we have seen, that spontaneity has occurred concurrently. In the case of chance, as we have seen, the event of chance occurs because humans have an infinite number of actions to chose from. With nature, however, Aristotle does not suggest that nature itself has a deliberate intention. Necessarily then, it is when a natural process is affected by another natural process or human deliberation that it diverts from it’s final cause, and in doing so, can produce events of spontaneity. Thus, while a human may chose the way in which he achieves his end, and in doing so may unknowingly chose an action which will lead to an improbable event, natural things change from potentiality to actuality in strict accordance with the final cause within them. Spontaneity occurring concurrently with another cause of a natural thing does not constitute a fifth cause, but is only an indication that the process did not follow completely it’s natural course (it’s final cause) and was impeded by an external event (either natural or a result of intelligent deliberation). Conclusively, chance occurs concurrently with the efficient cause of the individual in the sense that it is a simultaneously present, for only this specific efficient cause could lead to the chance event. Chance is however not an explanatory cause of it’s own, and the event considered chanceful can be explained solely with the individual efficient causes of the persons. Spontaneity occurring concurrently is thus identical to the way chance occurs concurrently, yet natural processes have specific inherent purposes-they are not events resulting from deliberate intent. As a result, spontaneity is said to occur when natural processes do not attain their end (the process was ‘in vain’), and are affected by an external event (deliberate or natural), thus producing an improbable event.

Influences on Online Consumer Buying Behaviour

Influences on Online Consumer Buying Behaviour Among the online shoppers there are many potential online consumers with an intention to purchase, but only few finishes the buying process (Shim et al. 2001). Buyers are online consumers who really make a purchase but browsers are the online shoppers who perform to access the online stores to retrieve the details of products and services but are not in intention to purchase (Law Bai, 2008). But there are studied that clearly explain the ways to convert an online shopper of browser to an buyer (Ranaweera et al. 2008). The web pages portrayal of its ambience and reliance helps the online browser to buy or not to, only the initial purchase satisfaction and experience of convenience online can make the online consumer come back again. Oliver (1999) found that the intentions of online shoppers with repeat of purchases will help to build relationship oriented online stores leading to online consumer loyalty. Constantinides (2004) clearly stated that there few influential factors which ar e external and internal that affect the online consumption behaviour. 1.0 INFLUENTIAL ASPECTS OF ONLINE CONSUMER BUYING BEHAVIOUR Kotler (2003) stated the online consumers behaviour is the learning process of the online consumers online store experience, search of information, and decision making of the buying process. The figure 1 clearly depicts the influential aspects of online consumer buying behaviour which are considered to posses uncontrollable and controllable aspects. The Kotler (2003) work is further is further enhanced by the addition of controllable aspects for online store experience by Constantinides (2004). The online consumer behaviour is basically based on the whole impression of online stores portal. (Constantinides, 2004) The strike of emotions occurred and other psychological factors while shopping in the web portal results to the overall online behaviour of the consumer. The web portal expelling the weak emotions or bad experience of online store is mostly likely to lose the potential online consumer compared to that of a web portal which portrays good online shopping experience. Due to the bad experiences in online stores, the online consumers choose to shop offline and prefer offline more rather online stores for future purchases. Yang et al. (2003) found that the online consumers prefer the websites that directs them step by step procedure for purchase decision rather than online stores that just direct online buyer to products. Czinkota and Kotabe (2001) states the uncontrollable aspects of online consumers like demographics and culture is not under the control of online store marketers. Constantinides (2002) work stated the fact that the experience that takes place during online shopping between buyer and seller through virtual interaction medium has major influence compared to other aspects to influence the online consumer behaviour. Finally the major impact on online consumers purchasing behaviour is mainly influenced by content, functionality and psychological behavioural factors (Constantinides, 2004). Jayawardhena et al (2007) study proves that the factor that generally motivates the online consumer to buying process is the maximum of control over their online shopping. But study of Sun (2010) proves that the online consumers are driven to buying process on the backgrounds of relationship excellence. 1.2 CONTENT ASPECT The features and appearance of the website is referred as the content factors of ecommerce. Kotler (1984) defined the aesthetics aspect of atmospheric factor that influences the shoppers buying behaviour. The outlook and interior brightnes and feel of the brick and mortar stores adds to the buying behaviour of the consumer (Areni and Kim, 1994), whereas the online consumers prefer the online stores with great visibility and good quality. Conroy (2006) claims that the visual and aural effects of web store can create attention and attraction among the online consumers, where this claims supports the study of Areni and Kim (1994). For instance flipkart.com creates attention and attraction of online consumers in India with good appearance of webpage appearance and product reviews. Functionality aspects of web store and online consumers webpage attraction is possibly created by highlighting sensory stimuli for the web stores (Parson and Conroy, 2006). The process of converting browsers to actual buyers can take place by clearly communicating the aesthetics of web store intensions to online consumers (Wang et al. 2010). Constantinides (2004) stated the positive aspects that motivate online consumer are better tracking facilities and preferable delivery options. The need for segmenting the online consumers based on buying behaviour helps to break them in groups and target with intensions. 1.2 PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT Consumers decision making process is vastly affected by the online store experience and behaviour are the main impacts of psychological aspects (Mcguire, 1976), Most online customers tend to terminate the online purchase for the reason of trust concern (Grabner-Krà ¤uter and Kaluscha, 2003). Major online retailers created a trustful atmosphere for online consumers by providing guarantees and return policies which help to eliminate the customers anxiety over online transactions. Web store option of frequently answered questions creates a positive element to the psychological aspect of the browser or buyer while shopping online. Online purchase returns without many hindrances and dissatisfaction handling of online consumer are all the additions to motivation for purchase decision process (Constantinides, 2004). 1.3 FUNCTIONALITY ASPECT The online stores usability and interactivity are the main factors associated for aspects of functionality. These factors are involved to influence in the process of buying decision of online consumer (Constantinides, 2004). Online consumption growth for years growing but the usability is getting complicated but by providing consumers with required information it is becoming minimal effort to use online shopping compared to offline. Online consumer are also provided ordered way to search for information and process the buying decision making properly navigated with proper net functionalities (Constantinides, 2004). Convenience and saving of time is the primary goal for any online shopper but with improper web store navigation and poor quality of the web store impacts the online consumer behaviour negatively to become a browser than a buyer (Nah and Davis, 2002) 2.0 SEGMENTATION OF E-CONSUMERS Online new buyers, experienced buyers and potential buyers are the three different segmented e-consumer groups in the e-commerce industry which is derived from the study of Hernà ¡ndez-Ortega et al. (2008). Online new buyers are the segmented e-consumers who are already familiar online purchase patterns but are shopping online for better deal driven or options. Online buyers who shop frequently and are easily adapted to online shopping structure are the experienced online buyers, these consumers are the most essential for the online stores value building and experienced buyers should under track on to maintain their loyalty. The online buyers with an intension to purchase online and are even chances of repeating online shopping can be turned to potential buyers by online stores efforts (Gronroos, 2004). The segmentation of online consumers is clearly done based on their shopping patterns is to define their online consumption behaviour to target certain strategies to turn them to ret urn online stores and create a sense of loyalty. It is done only by understanding and analysing the online shopping behaviour like price sensitivity, shopping activeness, balance of orientation, convenience and brand loyalty (Jayawardhena et al. 2007). 2.1 SENSIVITY TOWARDS PRICE Online consumers behaviour based on sensitivity of price are the economic online consumers according to study of Brown et al. (2003). Consumers from this segregated group are more concerned at the value for money attitude. Price sensitivity consumers will not give any attention towards online stores convenience or time aspects. These consumers choose the best possible product/service for their investment (Vijayasarathy, 2003). Online consumers who are price sensitive are large in number compared to other segmented online consumers, basically it is believed that major number of online consumers choose online stores over offline for finding value for money products/services (Brown et al. 2003). 2.2 BALANCED IN THE ORIENTATION Darden and Ashton (1975) termed this set of online consumers as discerning buyers or balanced buyers, these consumers are require all the preferential aspects of online shopping in a balanced manner. These consumers are loyal, take time to shop but will go for the best product/service that provides the balance of all their requirements. But according to study of Jayawardhena et al. (2007) convenience is proved to play key role in defining their online shopping preference compared to other aspects, further this set of online consumers are cannot be targeted very easily as the other online consumers. 2.3 LOYALTY TOWARDS BRAND The firm online sales can be steadily maintained with this set of consumers, who are loyal to the firm resulting in purchase of only their product/service. Browser can be converted to a buyer, if the brand has the potential to create loyalty among the browsers (Dawar and parker, 1994). Well recognition of brand and brands loyalty can help to lower the online consumers trust issues and risk aspects (Huang et al. 2004). All these aspects add to the well recognised brand to posses higher amount of market share compared to that of unrecognised brand. This segment of online consumers is recognised to be moderately high in number (Jayawardhena et al. 2007). 2.4 SHOPPING ACTIVENESS Online consumers who shop online for recreation belong to the aspect of shopping activeness. Online consumers from this aspect take pleasure in online shopping even if they purchase or not. Allred et al. (2006) considers that this segment of online consumers cannot be targeted by any motivational factors, as they shop for enjoyment of shopping than just purchasing. But Brown et al. (2003) considers few strategies to impact to attract these group by promotional offers, offering sample is possible, catalogues, design of a attractive web store can all add up to push to consumer to purchase product/service rather than just shopping. This further adds that if the consumer can also enjoy the whole buying process, chances of buying is more. These segment of online consumers are least compared to other segments (Jayawardhena et al. 2007) 2.5 CONVENIENCE The segment of online consumers wants to overcome inconvenience of travelling to offline stores, escape weather conditions, and eliminate the limitation of product/service varieties (Vijayasarathy, 2003). Some other preferences adding to this group are shopping pleasure and necessity. This segment of consumers depend convenience but this group are not in large compared to price sensitive consumers (Jayawardhena et al. 2007). The study on online consumer purchase patterns and behaviours are all most similar to that of offline consumers behaviours, the major identification in this study is that online shopping is just another channel of consumption of goods or services (Jayawardhena et al. 2007). But the conclusion that online shopping and offline shopping is similar is not the right consideration, below further study is done to define differences of offline and online consumers. 3.0 OFFLINE CONSUMERS AND ONLINE CONSUMERS The fast growth of internet penetration globally created a hugs shift of consumption channels from offline to online through the platform of e-commerce (Iqbal et al. 2002). Online consumers mostly are educated, mostly young and well-off tends to opt for online shopping over the offline channel (Allred et al. 2006). The difference in offering of value among the offline and online consumers is well studied by Iqbal et al. (2002). The online consumer enjoys the value of efficiency, features, speed in traction and price. The offline consumer enjoys the value of immediate customer service, quality, tangibility and promotional offers. Online and offline shopping has its own disadvantages and advantages for its consumers. The aspects that influence the purchasing behaviour of consumers in offline and online are same, only the tools used to target the offline and online consumers differ (Constantinides, 2004). But the tools that are available for influencing online consumption are numerous b ut there are various issues associated to it, the further discussion highlights the identified issue. 4.0 LIMITATIONS OF ONLINE STORES Lepkowska-White et al. (2004) study proved that various issues of online stores creates a sense worry for online consumers, mainly the issues which arise are complication of product/service information, product delivery, security and privacy issues, limited relationship and low customer service. Despite the various issues associated with online shopping, there aspects like e-retailers core competencies (Hofacker, 2008) that drive the online success even over the external factors like culture and demographic (Quelch and Klien, 1996). Web store is a virtual store executed and created on software programmes, several flaws would arise if the software program is not well designed. Bauer et al. (2006) research stated that online stores cannot balance its consumers with good functions of online shopping and better online store experience. Online store servers response time is also main issue under online consumer trust. Online store server with fast response can build trust and server with delay over the clicks can cause worry among the consumers (Cao and Zhao, 2004). The expenses that are saved from offline store structure by the online store is equally leveraged by the effort to bring and build e-sales. The main aspects of online store limitations are further discussed. 4.1 LEGAL AND REGULATORY CONCERNS Various issues regarding legal and regulatory grounds are being faced by various online stores for its negligence of its consumers legal and regulatory concerns. Wijnholds and Little, 2001 stated that the regulatory issue are related to geographical position. Online stores have to obey and abide to the governing rules which challenge sensitive privacy issues of online consumers. There are various online stores that secretly stored the consumer shopping details to target them with appropriate strategies for instance Amazon.com, where its strategy was opposed by few governing councils like European Union, where a rule was passed out to inform consumers prior to collection of their shopping details (Simnett,1999). This rule raised concerns for e-retailers to build trust among consumers and create strategies to market. Taxation is another concern for e-retailers trading globally, where different geographical location charge different amount of tax. The online store prices have variation according to consumers geographical origin. Online stores change their web portal according to various governing rules to operate in various countries (Eaglesham and Tucker, 1999). 4.2 SECURITY AND RISK Online consumers behaviour is mainly affected by the trust issue, the whole trading process is carried out in the e-commerce industry under value of trust and privacy (Constantinides, 2004). Lot of online sales are terminated or discontinued on the transaction process due to the trust issues between buyer and seller (Grabner-Krà ¤uter and Kaluscha, 2003). There are two kinds of trust that is described by Sun (2010), affective trust and cognitive trust. Affective trust is the emotional relationship between the seller and buyer, cognitive trust deals with integrity and benevolence. Online stores with built trust among its consumers can make them feel high satisfaction, less risk, high intensity to browse the online store for new or better products/services lead to increase in online sales. There are various third-party assurances given by various government agencies (Constantinides, 2004). They are specifically termed as third party assurance (TPA), many online stores failed to effect ively communicate its third party assurance to it consumers to build trust. TPA is classified as mark of trust that certain online store is trust worthy to make a purchase decision (Kimery  and  McCord,  2006). The two aspects related to purchase making decision are relationship with the seller and online stores information of product/service. Among all the online consumers many prefer a know online store compared to unknown online store for shopping. The unknown store to attract new online consumers and retain them need to focus on web store design and core competencies and finally by building trust the online store can also attract online consumers traffic (Constantinides, 2004). Li et al. (2008) from the study it is identified that the online store from its designing stage itself has to consider the trust and privacy concerns for their consumers. 5.0 E-RETAILERS IMPLICATIONS An E-retailer effort to push the consumer to overcome the barriers to make a purchase decision is the tough task to convert a browser into a buyer for its store. Nonetheless there are various external and internal aspects that influence the online consumer during the buying process. There are various web-store plannings and online marketing strategies available to influence the consumption behaviour of online buyers (Kolesar and Galbraith, 2000; Constantinides, 2002; Allred et al. 2006). Constantinides (2002) recommended 4 fundamentals model of S (system, synergy, site and scope or strategy) of online marketing strategy. This fundamental model can improve all areas of online selling. The system aspect of the model deals with online firm administration and requirements of technology. The synergy aspect of the model deals with the integration of its functions in relation to partnerships and legal requirements. The site aspect of the model deals with design of web store to create and ma intain the satisfaction level of shopping experience among browsers and buyers. Finally the scope aspect of the model deals with researching the market information of consumer patterns to form strategies that match the online consumer behaviour that suits the core of the web store. Vijayasarathy (2003) recommends that to sales of product/services to be carried only if suitable to be carried out in ecommerce channel. Boyd (2005) further added that regular online consumer would be satisfied with basic level service provided, trust and further few aspects are discussed below. 5.1 RELATIONSHIP BUILDING AND PHYSICAL PROOF The web store atmospheric evaluation of the online consumer creates the portal impression. The web store physical proof is noted simplicity of usage and fast reply of portal to consumers requests influence the consumers level of shopping experience (Wijnholds and Little, 2001). The core competencies of web store should help them create niche among the other web stores. The web store design should appeal the consumers according to its line of products/services and satisfy their shopping experience. For instance Chanel fashion house website targets the customers with their fashion shows and display of famous models. Relationship building is an important activity to be considered by e-retailers to retain the online consumers. Building relationship is done by basic steps of obtaining feedback and providing reply with quick information (Huang and Shyu, 2009). For instance, travel websites provide online consumers with FAQs, chat sessions, quick information regarding the travel options and availabilities (Allred et al. 2006). Sun (2010) believe that the effort of the e-retailer to retain online consumer with various aspects has positive effect on online consumers behaviour. 6.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Research questions are the most important aspects of this management project, In which it defines the current online consumer patterns in India and benchmarking of Indian online consumption with USA. The methodology includes the detail analysis and study in the Indian e-commerce Market with online consumers behaviour in relation to the discussion from literature review. The answer for the research problem is provided based on the related aspects that are discussed in the literature review, the case study methodology is applied for the gathering of analysis, data and the ways to form recommendations on what to do improvise the current trends. The nature of the research problem will define the choice of research method. The nature of phenomena to be researched states the research method sustainability (Morgan and Smircich, 1980). To form the basis for the research theoretical perspective is chooses as choice for methodology. Levy (2006) stated that Methodology, methods, theoretical perspective and Epistemology are the four elements of research design. 6.1 RESEARCH DESIGN: EPISTEMOLOGY The process of Epistemology is the research design that relates the knowledge and it usage and adequacy using the philosophical grounding (Levy, 2006). Constructionism and Objectivist are the two main underlined epistemology. Objectivism Constructionism Positivism Interpretivism Grounded Theory Survey One- to- one Interviews Case Study Focus Group Sampling Measurement and Scaling Figure : Research Design elements Source: (Crotty, 1998) It is discovered that if the research of objectivists is carried out in proper manner there are possibilities to find the truth. But objectivists are rejected by constructionists that there is no process discovering or finding truth. The communication with various realities of the global can only derive truth. Thus the constructionists mean that nothing is discovered but is only constructed (Levy, 2006). Above figure states the research design elements associated to quantitative and qualitative methodology. 6.2 PHILOSOPHY OF RESEARCH: THEORETICAL There are two approaches of the philosophy of research: Interpretivism and Positivist. Interpretivism posses that researchers have no access to the actual world and their awareness of the perception of the current world is significant, in which they could be understood by the usage of intrepretivist processes. Positivism is the associated to the objectivism epistemology and based on the assumption that there is ways to acquire concrete knowledge about the truth (Carson et al. 2001). Positivist is the one who considers the object and the subject or the researcher as independent and two different aspects. The knowledge that could be acquired beyond the human awareness is ascertained by positivists. These set of researchers believe human awareness about the world and the view of the objective ascertains the total view of base for the human awareness (Webber, 2004). The large number of positivists tends to analyse the history, culture, experience and so on all those that creates the research. Survey, field experiments and laboratory experiments are research methodologies available for the usage by positivists. The philosophy of research applied in this project is the internpretivism. It is believed that researchers who watch and reality they believe cannot be separated. Throughout their life their perceptions or the concept about world is brought from the flow of experiences (Weber, 2004). The awareness the interpretivists structure imitates their culture, experience, own goals, etc. Few characteristics of Interpretivist are discussed below: Researchers are motivated by episodes of concepts and approaches of qualitative measures. The focal point of research is the process of analysing the happenings under the given circumstances. Including the various concerns like individual perspectives, researcher involvement, and multiple realities. Tendency of usage towards the phenomenographic, enthographic and case studies. They are concerned to defend the acquired awareness through research process. Conclusions made by the researcher are reasonable and the research is carried in the context of researcher examination of evidences. The researcher believes that clubbing of both research process and its subjectivity an portray the steps taken to assess limitations of the subjectivity (Weber, 2004) RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Methodological approach is not only affected by the research philosophy like epistemology but it also affects the interpretivist approach. The researcher study is focused on understanding and interpretation (Carson et al, 2001) and motivated to relate personal experience and knowledge in the interpretivist framework. The conclusion is that it is based on the approach of qualitative. The study that is not made by the means of quantifications and means of statistical procedures to define the findings of the research as qualitative approach (Levy, 2006). When the main scope of the study is to construct theory with effective methodology then it is the qualitative methodology. This research involves researcher reactions and views, documents, questionnaires, interviews and observations. The qualitative methodology basis form is done by the grounded theory method. The fundamental aspect of the grounded theory model is that to discover and read the data from various series through observations through where the core points are extracted and marked (Strauss and Corbin, 1998). Research theory is grounded in association to the repeated reference of the knowledge. Interpretivist research with complex social process among people is required to carried out in solving the research problem using the grounded theory (Carson et al. 2001). RESEARCH METHODS CASE STUDY METHOD The analysis of complexity and particularity of a case or issue reaching to point of acquiring knowledge of the core circumstances (Stake, 1995). It is focus light over a certain instance (Denscombe). The investigation and study at one instance can help to define and discover details that were never discovered in any other researches. The four stages of case study work: Analysing the current situation. Which is carried out through semi structured and structured interviews. Information collection on the current and background of the circumstances. This is carried out through interviews, documentation references and observations. Gathering more precise information, through the observations, interviews and exploration of information. Analysis presentation of recommendations and observations. The progression of intensive knowledge and development of details regarding certain circumstances of a case result in formation of a case study (Saunder et al, 1997). The various questions that arise from the management project are answered by the case study. The study to analyse the effects of past issues, current issues and its influences on the organisational units is the basic approach of case study (Jankowicz, 2005). According to Yin (1984) case study analysis has four core issues that are external validity, construct validity, internal validity and reliability. A concern that creates issue in the operations of the analysis, where the data collected is repeated with similar results is the reliability issue. Establishment of relationships that are important for the comparison of research methods like survey is considered by the internal validity. To control the chances of researcher misinterprets the information and end up with wrong recommendation and conclusions are controlled by construction validity which employs correct methods. The study conclusions that are comprehensive are concerns that are established by external validity. There are various concerns that arise case study approach, those are rigour, reliability, validity, time and information overload, subjective bias and generalisation (Burns, 2000). The various issues are considered and case study approach is applied based on highlighting the concerns. 7.0 INDIAN ONLINE CONSUMPTION BEHAVIOUR 7.1 BACKGROUND 7.2 CURRENT ONLINE CONSUMPTION PATTERNS IN INDIA Traditional Indian retail consumption of touch and buy is changing to click and buy. But the online consumers in India are not really buying the concept of online shopping in the present scenario of nascent ecommerce. (http://www.juxtconsult.com/Reports/Juxt_India_Online_2009_Main_Report.pdf) From the report of Juxconsult online shoppers in India for 2009 are 9 million with 3.5 million are buyers and remaining are the internet consumers who search but do not prefer online stores are browsers. TRAVEL SECTOR The major Indian online consumption comes from the worlds second largest rail network one that caters to 13 million passengers every day, the network that has been the back bone of Indian economy for more than a hundred and fifty years. When the Indian railways launched its online bookings in 2005 everyone expected it to be a success but no one guessed how big the portal would grow to be. Currently Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation (IRCTC) portal leads Indias e-commerce market (http://www.irctc.com/annual_report.html). In April 2010 IRCTC reported that it registered 9 million transactions (http://www.pluggd.in/irctc-transactions-tickets-sold-worth-6-billion-april-2009-297/) and it is the top e-governance project executed in India. IRCTC web portal also started its service of air ticketing thats because the Indian middle class have been actively logging in to buy air tickets online in the past few years. The travel vertical accounts for 80% e-commerce in India. These are the various reasons travel sector is one of the most successful e-commerce verticals in the country. The travel sector e-commerce is quick transaction process for online consumer. The relationship of travel sector and e-commerce in India is becoming stronger in days time. Travel sector e-commerce is a fixed business model with low certain margins, experience air travel and global economic downturn meant that the travel e-commerce need to face the loses, thats when the travel portals choose to diversify their interests like value added services like hotel bookings, car rentals, bus and rail tickets. From travel to classified the next most successful vertical CLASSIFIEDS SECTOR The classifieds sector is divided into many markets but matrimony, jobs and real estates forms the major share of the sector. Among them in terms of revenue matrimony is the largest because matrimony is largest as it is fixed subscription business model. Blending tradition with the new age technology this portals essentially charge a subscription fee to allow a user to post and search profiles on their account, Apart from this these portals make revenue through match-making schemes and online ads. Indian online consumers prefer these organised matrimonial services because of the pressure to get married and few their opportunities to meet potential partners. For the job segment portals are making huge revenue with recruitment and personnel services, traffic grow frequently by 30% every few months. The 60% of job recruitments in India are don

Comparing and Contrasting Epic of Gilgamesh and the Bibles Noahs Ark

Comparing and Contrasting Epic of Gilgamesh and Noah's Ark Many cultures have stories of a great flood, and probably the best known story is of Noah's Ark. The next most notable is the Sumerian story of Ut-Napishtim found in the Epic of Gilgamesh. In the ancient Babylonian depiction of the flood story, the god Enlil creates a flood to destroy a noisy mankind that is disturbing his sleep. Gilgamesh is told by another god, Ea, to build an ark (Monack 1). The Epic of Gilgamesh has broadly the same structure and plot as Noah's Ark, suggesting the possibility that the Biblical account has drawn influence from the archaeologically older Sumerian depiction. University professor Alexander Heidel concludes that these accounts are undeniably related (Fowler 1). According to theological considerations, the Epic and the Biblical versions can be contrasted as well. In the Epic of Gilgamesh, the gods are depicted as lacking any moral or ethical purpose in their pronouncement of judgment (Fowler 2). In contrast, the Biblical record describes only one God who is just and moral. The archite...

Hong Kong Artist :: Jackie Chan Actors Movies Films Essays

Hong Kong Artist Have you ever seen "Rush Hour" or "Shanghai Noon"? Were you excited when you see all the stunts and kung fu fighting in those films? All these film starred a famous international artist and singer, Jackie Chan, who was originated from my hometown, Hong Kong. It is interesting to know about his childhood, and how he became who he is today. Jackie Chan's Childhood was not very pleasant because his family was very poor. Jackie Chan's real name was Kwong-Sang Chan, and he was born in Hong Kong on April 7, 1954. His Chinese name Kwong-Sang means "born in Hong Kong." Jackie was delivered after twelve months of pregnancy. That was three months more than usual delivery. Therefore, his mother had to have a surgery to bring him out. At his birth, Jackie weighed more than twelve pounds. Jackie had a nickname called "Ah Pao" which means a cannonball. Jackie was not a kid who loved school. He attended the Nah-Hwa primary school in Hong Kong, but he disliked school and left after finishing first grade. At age of seven, his father took position as chief in the American Embassy in Australia. His father determined that the boy should learn some skills and sent him to the Peking Opera School. In Peking Opera School, Jackie learned dancing, singing, acrobatics, acting and martial arts. Also, Jackie met Sammo Hung and Yuen Biao who became successful actors today. During the school days, Jackie and his friends had to train everyday from morning till night. Jackie had mentioned it was the hardest period of his life. They needed to study and work 19 hours a day. Jackie and his friends would be punished and beaten up if they did not fulfill their practice or failed to achieve the standards. After days of practice, they would perform in a troupe called "The Seven Fortunes". Among them, Sammo Hung was the big brother of the group. They often performed in public performances at the Laiyuen Amusement Park and other venues. This was the childhood of Jackie Chan. The early years of Jackie Chan in the film industry was not successful at all. As time changed, the Peking Opera School declined. Their master started to loan "The Seven Fortunes" out as stuntmen to film company. Jackie worked as a stuntmen or the Shaw Brothers Film Company. He performed many dangerous stunts for the company and soon got noticed.

Comparison Between Merchant of Venice and The Bible Essay -- William S

SHYLOCK: What says that fool of Hagar's offspring, ha? The Biblical Story Genesis 16: 1-16 1 Now Sarai Abramï ¿ ½s wife bare him no children, and she had a maid an Egyptian, Hagar by name. 2 And Sarai said unto Abram, Behold now, the Lord hath restrained me from child bearing. I pray thee go in unto my maid: it may be that I shall receive a child by her. And Abram obeyed the voice of Sarai. 3 Then Sarai Abramï ¿ ½s wife took Hagar her maid the Egyptian, after Abram had dwelled ten years in the land of Canaan, and gave her to her husband Abram for his wife. 4 And he went in unto Hagar, and she conceived. and when she saw that she had conceived, her dame was despised in her eyes. 5 Then Sarai said to Abram, Thou doest me wrong. I have given my maid into thy bosom, and she seeth that she hath conceived, and I am despised in her eyes: the Lord judge between me and thee. 6 Then Abram said to Sarai, Behold, thy maid is in thine hand: do with her as it pleaseth thee. Then Sarai dealt roughly with her: wherefore she fled from her. 7 But the Angel of the Lord found her beside a fountain of water in the wilderness by the fountain in the way to Shur, 8 And he said, Hagar Saraiï ¿ ½s maid, whence comest thou? and whither wilt thou go? And she said, I flee from my dame Sarai. 9 Then the Angel of the Lord said to her, Return to thy dame, and humble thyself under her hands. 10 Again the Angel of the Lord said unto her, I will so greatly increase thy seed, that it shall not be numbered for multitude. 11 Also the Angel of the Lord said unto her, See, thou art with child, and shalt bear a son, and shalt call his name Ishmael: for the Lord hath heard thy tribulation. 12 And he shall be a wild man: his hand shall be against every man, and every m... ...tian: those who are "gentile" Christians (the vast majority) and those who are Jewish Christians (in other words, ethnic Jews who belong to the second category (above) of both "Jews" and "Christians." David was descended from Abraham through Abraham's great-grandson Judah, whose father was Jacob, and whose grandfather was Isaac. Judah was the fourth son of Jacob, who had twelve sons corresponding to the twelve tribes of Israel (actually, not quite, because Levi became a tribe without a land of its own (they were the assistants to the priests and lived in specific cities throughout the land), and Joseph's sons, Ephraim and Manasseh were given a double portion of the inheritance (both of them had their own tribe, in a way)). - Peter Gaultney Works Cited ï ¿ ½Ishmael.ï ¿ ½ Smithï ¿ ½s Bible Dictionary. April 5 2005. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/smith_w/bibledict.i.html?term=ishmael

British Prime Minister

From the year 1905 to the year 2008, there are already 24 prime ministers who have ruled over as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (United Kingdom Prime Ministers 2008). As of the present times, the position is occupied by Gordon Brown. The power that is being held by the prime minister has been passed on from one hand over the next for the past 103 years. The source of power is an important factor in analyzing the role of the prime minister and the way through which a deeper understanding of how it is maintained can be seen.The distinctiveness and the constant replacement of the prime minister over the course of their existence in the British government have to be related to the dynamics of power together with its source in order to explain why and how it is held by the people in position. This paper aims to draw a concept of power and identify whether there is an informal and formal side of power. This is done through a research using different literatures and also draws upo n personal opinion in order to provide a critical position on the general topic of power.This is followed by a discussion of the power that is exercised by the prime minister, more specifically that of the United Kingdom. The sources of power, according to the conventions, arrangements, and constitutional devices are also researched in order to relate this to how the power is earned and maintained. In order to do this, the experiences of the past prime ministers are studied and collected to form a historical overview of how the power to govern as a prime minister is taken and maintained. What is Power?In understanding the concept of power, it is important to take note of its definition and the characteristics that are associated with it. Morgan (2006) defines it to be â€Å"the medium through which conflicts of interest are ultimately resolved [and] influences who gets what, when, and how† (p. 166). In relation to this, it is seen that power occurs with the picture of social reality drawn by the members of a particular group and the need for the allocation of the scarce resources (Pfeffer & Salancik 2003).There is a relation that can be seen from the two definitions wherein it could be derived that the person or the group which has the power defines the resources that are considered to be of limited amount. Along with the possession of power is the ability and influence for particular resources together with its allocation. In addition to this, the seat of power is defined by the individuals making up a group. Politically speaking, power is seen to be a means through which sharing occurs in the process of making decisions (Fahlbusch, Bromily, & Barrett 1999).In the context of the government, the decision-making process meanaaas the formulation of the policies, which include government action or inaction. Further disparity is seen with the use of power as there are two faces seen for it. It is seen as an instrument through which peace and status quo can be achieved (Fahlbusch, Bromily, & Barrett 1999). On the other hand, it remains to be very susceptible to abuse that includes â€Å"misuse, excess, and tyranny† (Fahlbusch, Bromily, & Barrett 1999: 311)Two additional and related definitions of power is provided by Shortell and Kaluzny (1997) where it is seen that power is: 1) something that is used in order to change the course of action or behavior of another group or individual and 2) the influence that is exerted in order to force another person or group to do something that is in opposite to the original decision. There are certain elements that can be clearly seen from these definitions of power. First, it is seen that it may or it may not transcend through a hierarchical structure and is not dependent on the way through which positions in the organization is patterned.This is because the direction from which the power stems can be anywhere who can actually accomplish the two conditions mentioned above. However, it can b e seen that there is, actually, a greater chance for those who occupy higher positions to have power and use it because of the capabilities and responsibilities that is attached to the position. Second, it is a means of initiating change. To a certain extent, it can be seen that change is often associated with leadership as the latter is associated with two characteristics which include being â€Å"masters of change† and â€Å"visionaries† (Fisher 1999: 138).It can be related that since there is a sense of change in every leader, it can be seen that power is something that is used for the purpose of leading people into making several changes for a particular goal that is intended. It should be noted, still, that leadership is not the same as management and may or may not lie within the formal organizational structure. Third, power is sometimes associated with coercion and the use of force in order to achieve something.Though this is oftentimes seen and accepted in nega tive terms, it should be considered that this is not the sole aspect of power. In fact, there are different types of power that is classified according to their sources and coercion is only one of the elements that can be seen from one or a few of these types. A discussion with regard to this is placed in the following section. Sources of Power There are five general sources of power as presented by Cronkhite (2008). The classification includes reward power, coercive power, legitimate power, referent power, and expert power (Cronkhite 2008).First, reward power exists where loyalty and cooperation is earned in exchange for something that is needed (Cronkhite 2008). Second, coercive power involves the ability to take away something that is considered to be of value when the behavior or action desired is not achieved (R. Denhardt, J. Denhardt, & Aristigueta 2001). Third, legitimate power, placed in simple terms, is considered to be the type of power which stems from the position that i s being held wherein people are made to follow and act in consideration of the organizational structure, which indicates the position (Bob, I.Asherman, S. Asherman, & Randall 2001). Fourth, referent power is the type wherein power is gained through association with a powerful group or persons (Timby & Smith 2007). It could be of the inherent power of the organization to which a particular person belongs that makes other people behave in a particular manner Lastly, expert power is that which is derived from the â€Å"special knowledge, skill, or ability† that a particular individual possesses (Cottam, Uhler, Mastors, & Preston 2004).The Role of the Prime Minister There are several roles that need to be fulfilled by the British Prime Minister being the national leader. The breadth of responsibilities include â€Å"constitutional and procedural, appointments to ministerial and other senior posts, conduct of Cabinet and parliamentary business, the organization and efficiency of government, the Budget and other economic decisions, and special foreign and defense functions† (Mayne 1999: 26).As can be discerned from the list of general roles taken by the Prime Minister, there are functions which are legislative and executive in nature. The Prime Minister’s presence and control is felt when it comes to policy formulation, which is in the decision-making process, and in policy implementation, which is the executive functions of the prime minister. For example, he or she has affairs to deal with in the decisions made but also has defense functions, which is under the executive branch of the government.Another set of classification is also provided by Borthwick, Shell, and Williams (1995) wherein the Prime Minister is vested with responsibilities as the primary individual responsible for the operations of the government, the head of the party to which he or she belongs, and the leader of the whole nation. There are different specific tasks that need to be accomplished in consideration of the different interests of the people to whom the prime minister is accountable to.It is also defined by Hayward and Menon (2003) that a seemingly prime ministerial government exists in Britain wherein the â€Å"prime minister co-ordinates policy, resolves conflicts, and controls the main resources† (67). In the definition previously provided in an attempt to clarify the concept of power, it has been shown that the elements of power include possession of control in resources, an influence in the decision making process, and a voice in the resolution of conflict.These are the three elements that could also be discerned from the functions and roles of the prime minister that are presented by Hayward and Menon (2003) and Mayne (1999). It can be concluded that the set of functions given here characterize the existence of power within the hands of the Prime Minister and the sources can be both formal and informal, as is followed in the defini tion of power in general. Where it all Comes From There are different sources of power that can be seen from the history of prime ministerial incumbency in Britain.Through the intricate network of relations formed from the organizational hierarchy of the government, it can be seen that there are three general sources of power that includes the conventions, the constitutional devices, and the arrangements that are present in the British government. From personal characteristics also comes a consideration of whether or not a particular individual is given the power to serve as the Prime Minister.There are four characteristics, which include: 1) the name and status in the society or an organization together with what an individual can do; 2) perceived affiliation with success in terms of politics; 3) acceptance of the public; and 4) a relatively high position in the â€Å"party, parliamentary party, and government† (Poguntke & Webb 2005: 37). While these can not be considered as the direct sources of power, it serves as among the characteristics that are seen as bases whether power is given to an individual or not.This is important because these are requirements or prerequisites that are seen to be the main characteristics of the people that are vested with the powers of the Prime Minister. Likewise, it can be seen that these bases for the acquisition of power is not framed in the Constitution nor is it determined through the formal lines of government but are the shadow elements being considered in the selection process. However, it should also be noted that not everyone who fits these conditions become Prime Ministers.This is because there are other forms of standards are present that limits only one individual to be considered rightful as the Prime Minister. To a certain extent, it can be said that the Prime Minister is considered to be an â€Å"elected monarch† and draws certain powers from the Royal Crown of the land (Borthwick, Shell, & Willia ms 1995). The approval and acceptance of the monarch has been an important factor in maintaining the power that is within the reach of the Prime Minister.Over the years, the manner through which the monarch is selected has evolved in such a way that in the beginning, it is the personal affiliation of the person to the monarch that mattered but in the twentieth century, it became the credentials and appropriateness of the person that is considered by the monarch (Borthwick, Shell, & Williams 1995). While today’s monarch do not hold as much power and influence as those that existed in the past, they are still given the chance to voice out their concerns over the affairs of the government especially with the selection of the key leaders of the country.It has been through traditional considerations and the influence that the monarch has that renders them to still be powerful for certain decisions made in the country. In addition to this, the Prime Minister is tasked to report to the monarch every week in consideration of the monarch’s possession of â€Å"the right to be consulted, the right to encourage and the right to warn† (Williams 1998: 165). There are still powers and rights that are given to the monarch that the Prime Minister could not ignore and should continuously take into account for the former could easily use its power against the Prime Minister.In addition to this, it is argued by Harrison and Boyd (2006) â€Å"that the major development strengthening PM power over the last century have been mainly political rather than constitutional (34-5). Politically speaking, the power of the Prime Minister is related to the party that wins in the House of Common, which is considered to be a source of power for the Prime Minister (Borthwick, Shell, & Williams 1995). The largest party wins in the House of Common and the person who serves as the leader of the said party is appointed as the Prime Minister with the approval of respective autho rities in the land.Just the same as the Prime Minister reports to the monarch, he or she is likewise responsible to the House in lieu of the need to maintain the power that is vested upon him or her. There are several expectations that need to be fulfilled as a Prime Minister that would continuously be within the shoulders of the incumbent. Moreover, another source of power for the Prime Minister is the assignment of being the First Lord of the Treasury where the two positions are often associated with one another (Goodnow 2005). The responsibilities of the said office give the Prime Minister another area from where his or her power could stem from.Conclusion Power is considered to be the influence in the decision-making process, the control over the resources, and the force exerted over the behavior and actions of other people. In general, there are five sources of power that is categorized according to how power is attained and maintained. Placed in the context of the British gove rnment, power is considered in the roles of the Prime Minister. There are general roles that are fulfilled by the individual who is incumbent to the said position, which is being the head of the state, government, and the parliament.The powers of the Prime Minister are also earned through the monarch and the positions assigned of him or her. There are different limitations to the extent of control exhibited by the monarchy today but it remains to be ingrained in the British society and it can still place several pressures on the Prime Minister and the power of the same. In addition to this, there are also personal characteristics that are held as important for the position. Indeed, the powers of the Prime Minister stem from different sources, which are both formal and informal.The broad range from which power is sourced out is considered to be an implication of the need for a clear delineation of the powers and functions of the British Prime Minister. List of References Bob, P. , As herman, I. , Aherman, S. , and Randall, J. (2001) The Negotiation Sourcebook. Amherst, MA: HRD Press. Borthwick, R. L. , Shell, D. , and Williams, R. (1995) Churchill to Major: The British Prime Ministership Since 1945. NY: M. E. Sharpe, Inc. Cottam, M. , Uhler, B. , Mastors, E. and Preston, T. (2004) Introduction to Political Psychology.Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Cronkhite, C. (2008) Criminal Justice Administration: Strategies for the 21st Century. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Denhardt, R. , Denhardt, J. and Aristigueta, M. (2001) Managing Human Behavior in Public and Nonprofit Organizations. London: SAGE. Fahlbusch, E. , Bromiley, G. , and Barrett, D. (1999) The Encyclopedia of Christianity: (A-D). Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. Fisher, K. (1999) Leading Self-Directed Work Teams: A Guide to Developing New Team Leadership Skills. NY: McGraw-Hill. Goodnow, F.(2005) Comparative Administrative Law: An Analysis of The Administrative Syst ems, National And Local, Of The United States, England, France, And Germany. NY: G. P. Putnam’s Sons. Harrison, K. and Boyd, T. (2006) The Changing Constitution. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Hayward, J. and Menon, A. (2003) Governing Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Mayne, A. (1999) From Politics Past to Politics Future: An Integrated Analysis of Current and Emergent Paradigms. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. Morgan, G. (2006) Images of Organization. London: SAGE. Pfeffer, J.and Salancik, G. (2003) The External Control of Organizations: A Resource Dependence Perspective. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Poguntke, T. and Webb, P. (2005) The Presidentialization of Politics: A Comparative Study of Modern Democracies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Shortell, S. and Kaluzny, A. (1997) Essentials of Health Care Management. NY: Thomson Delmar. Timby, B. & Smith, N. (2007) Introductory Medical-Surgical Nursing. Philadelphia PA: Lippincott Wi lliams & Wilkins. Williams, A. (1998) UK Government and Politics. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Publishers.